NePA TesT: Community Network Emulator

"""

Node objects for Mininet.

Nodes provide a simple abstraction for interacting with hosts, switches

and controllers. Local nodes are simply one or more processes on the local

machine.

Node: superclass for all (primarily local) network nodes.

Host: a virtual host. By default, a host is simply a shell; commands

    may be sent using Cmd (which waits for output), or using sendCmd(),

    which returns immediately, allowing subsequent monitoring using

    monitor(). Examples of how to run experiments using this

    functionality are provided in the examples/ directory.

CPULimitedHost: a virtual host whose CPU bandwidth is limited by

    RT or CFS bandwidth limiting.

HostWithPrivateDirs: a virtual host that has user-specified private

    directories. These may be temporary directories stored as a tmpfs,

    or persistent directories that are mounted from another directory in

    the root filesystem.

Switch: superclass for switch nodes.

UserSwitch: a switch using the user-space switch from the OpenFlow

    reference implementation.

KernelSwitch: a switch using the kernel switch from the OpenFlow reference

    implementation.

OVSSwitch: a switch using the OpenVSwitch OpenFlow-compatible switch

    implementation (openvswitch.org).

Controller: superclass for OpenFlow controllers. The default controller

    is controller(8) from the reference implementation.

NOXController: a controller node using NOX (noxrepo.org).

RemoteController: a remote controller node, which may use any

    arbitrary OpenFlow-compatible controller, and which is not

    created or managed by mininet.

Future enhancements:

- Possibly make Node, Switch and Controller more abstract so that

  they can be used for both local and remote nodes

- Create proxy objects for remote nodes (Mininet: Cluster Edition)

"""

import os

import pty

import re

import signal

import select

from subprocess import Popen, PIPE, STDOUT

from operator import or_

from time import sleep

from mininet.log import info, error, warn, debug

from mininet.util import ( quietRun, errRun, errFail, moveIntf, isShellBuiltin,

                           numCores, retry, mountCgroups )

from mininet.moduledeps import moduleDeps, pathCheck, OVS_KMOD, OF_KMOD, TUN

from mininet.link import Link, Intf, TCIntf

from re import findall

from distutils.version import StrictVersion

class Node( object ):

    """A virtual network node is simply a shell in a network namespace.

       We communicate with it using pipes."""

    portBase = 0  # Nodes always start with eth0/port0, even in OF 1.0

    def __init__( self, name, inNamespace=True, **params ):

        """name: name of node

           inNamespace: in network namespace?

           params: Node parameters (see config() for details)"""

        # Make sure class actually works

        self.checkSetup()

        self.name = name

        self.inNamespace = inNamespace

        # Stash configuration parameters for future reference

        self.params = params

        self.intfs = {}  # dict of port numbers to interfaces

        self.ports = {}  # dict of interfaces to port numbers

                         # replace with Port objects, eventually ?

        self.nameToIntf = {}  # dict of interface names to Intfs

        # Make pylint happy

        ( self.shell, self.execed, self.pid, self.stdin, self.stdout,

            self.lastPid, self.lastCmd, self.pollOut ) = (

                None, None, None, None, None, None, None, None )

        self.waiting = False

        self.readbuf = ''

        # Start command interpreter shell

        self.startShell()

    # File descriptor to node mapping support

    # Class variables and methods

    inToNode = {}  # mapping of input fds to nodes

    outToNode = {}  # mapping of output fds to nodes

    @classmethod

    def fdToNode( cls, fd ):

        """Return node corresponding to given file descriptor.

           fd: file descriptor

           returns: node"""

        node = cls.outToNode.get( fd )

        return node or cls.inToNode.get( fd )

    # Command support via shell process in namespace

    def startShell( self ):

        "Start a shell process for running commands"

        if self.shell:

            error( "%s: shell is already running" )

            return

        # mnexec: (c)lose descriptors, (d)etach from tty,

        # (p)rint pid, and run in (n)amespace

        opts = '-cd'

        if self.inNamespace:

            opts += 'n'

        # bash -m: enable job control, i: force interactive

        # -s: pass $* to shell, and make process easy to find in ps

        # prompt is set to sentinel chr( 127 )

        os.environ[ 'PS1' ] = chr( 127 )

        cmd = [ 'mnexec', opts, 'bash', '--norc', '-mis', 'mininet:' + self.name ]

        # Spawn a shell subprocess in a pseudo-tty, to disable buffering

        # in the subprocess and insulate it from signals (e.g. SIGINT)

        # received by the parent

        master, slave = pty.openpty()

        self.shell = Popen( cmd, stdin=slave, stdout=slave, stderr=slave,

                                  close_fds=False )

        self.stdin = os.fdopen( master )

        self.stdout = self.stdin

        self.pid = self.shell.pid

        self.pollOut = select.poll()

        self.pollOut.register( self.stdout )

        # Maintain mapping between file descriptors and nodes

        # This is useful for monitoring multiple nodes

        # using select.poll()

        self.outToNode[ self.stdout.fileno() ] = self

        self.inToNode[ self.stdin.fileno() ] = self

        self.execed = False

        self.lastCmd = None

        self.lastPid = None

        self.readbuf = ''

        # Wait for prompt

        while True:

            data = self.read( 1024 )

            if data[ -1 ] == chr( 127 ):

                break

            self.pollOut.poll()

        self.waiting = False

        self.cmd( 'stty -echo' )

    def cleanup( self ):

        "Help python collect its garbage."

        # Intfs may end up in root NS

        for intfName in self.intfNames():

            if self.name in intfName:

                quietRun( 'ip link del ' + intfName )

        self.shell = None

    # Subshell I/O, commands and control

    def read( self, maxbytes=1024 ):

        """Buffered read from node, non-blocking.

           maxbytes: maximum number of bytes to return"""

        count = len( self.readbuf )

        if count < maxbytes:

            data = os.read( self.stdout.fileno(), maxbytes - count )

            self.readbuf += data

        if maxbytes >= len( self.readbuf ):

            result = self.readbuf

            self.readbuf = ''

        else:

            result = self.readbuf[ :maxbytes ]

            self.readbuf = self.readbuf[ maxbytes: ]

        return result

    def readline( self ):

        """Buffered readline from node, non-blocking.

           returns: line (minus newline) or None"""

        self.readbuf += self.read( 1024 )

        if '\n' not in self.readbuf:

            return None

        pos = self.readbuf.find( '\n' )

        line = self.readbuf[ 0: pos ]

        self.readbuf = self.readbuf[ pos + 1: ]

        return line

    def write( self, data ):

        """Write data to node.

           data: string"""

        os.write( self.stdin.fileno(), data )

    def terminate( self ):

        "Send kill signal to Node and clean up after it."

        if self.shell:

            os.killpg( self.pid, signal.SIGKILL )

        self.cleanup()

    def stop( self ):

        "Stop node."

        self.terminate()

    def waitReadable( self, timeoutms=None ):

        """Wait until node's output is readable.

           timeoutms: timeout in ms or None to wait indefinitely."""

        if len( self.readbuf ) == 0:

            self.pollOut.poll( timeoutms )

    def sendCmd( self, *args, **kwargs ):

        """Send a command, followed by a command to echo a sentinel,

           and return without waiting for the command to complete.

           args: command and arguments, or string

           printPid: print command's PID?"""

        assert not self.waiting

        printPid = kwargs.get( 'printPid', True )

        # Allow sendCmd( [ list ] )

        if len( args ) == 1 and type( args[ 0 ] ) is list:

            cmd = args[ 0 ]

        # Allow sendCmd( cmd, arg1, arg2... )

        elif len( args ) > 0:

            cmd = args

        # Convert to string

        if not isinstance( cmd, str ):

            cmd = ' '.join( [ str( c ) for c in cmd ] )

        if not re.search( r'\w', cmd ):

            # Replace empty commands with something harmless

            cmd = 'echo -n'

        self.lastCmd = cmd

        if printPid and not isShellBuiltin( cmd ):

            if len( cmd ) > 0 and cmd[ -1 ] == '&':

                # print ^A{pid}\n so monitor() can set lastPid

                cmd += ' printf "\\001%d\n" $! \n'

            else:

                cmd = 'mnexec -p ' + cmd

        self.write( cmd + '\n' )

        self.lastPid = None

        self.waiting = True

    def sendInt( self, intr=chr( 3 ) ):

        "Interrupt running command."

        self.write( intr )

    def monitor( self, timeoutms=None, findPid=True ):

        """Monitor and return the output of a command.

           Set self.waiting to False if command has completed.

           timeoutms: timeout in ms or None to wait indefinitely."""

        self.waitReadable( timeoutms )

        data = self.read( 1024 )

        # Look for PID

        marker = chr( 1 ) + r'\d+\r\n'

        if findPid and chr( 1 ) in data:

            # Marker can be read in chunks; continue until all of it is read

            while not re.findall( marker, data ):

                data += self.read( 1024 )

            markers = re.findall( marker, data )

            if markers:

                self.lastPid = int( markers[ 0 ][ 1: ] )

                data = re.sub( marker, '', data )

        # Look for sentinel/EOF

        if len( data ) > 0 and data[ -1 ] == chr( 127 ):

            self.waiting = False

            data = data[ :-1 ]

        elif chr( 127 ) in data:

            self.waiting = False

            data = data.replace( chr( 127 ), '' )

        return data

    def waitOutput( self, verbose=False ):

        """Wait for a command to complete.

           Completion is signaled by a sentinel character, ASCII(127)

           appearing in the output stream.  Wait for the sentinel and return

           the output, including trailing newline.

           verbose: print output interactively"""

        log = info if verbose else debug

        output = ''

        while self.waiting:

            data = self.monitor()

            output += data

            log( data )

        return output

    def cmd( self, *args, **kwargs ):

        """Send a command, wait for output, and return it.

           cmd: string"""

        verbose = kwargs.get( 'verbose', False )

        log = info if verbose else debug

        log( '*** %s : %s\n' % ( self.name, args ) )

        self.sendCmd( *args, **kwargs )

        return self.waitOutput( verbose )

    def cmdPrint( self, *args):

        """Call cmd and printing its output

           cmd: string"""

        return self.cmd( *args, **{ 'verbose': True } )

    def popen( self, *args, **kwargs ):

        """Return a Popen() object in our namespace

           args: Popen() args, single list, or string

           kwargs: Popen() keyword args"""

        defaults = { 'stdout': PIPE, 'stderr': PIPE,

                     'mncmd':

                     [ 'mnexec', '-da', str( self.pid ) ] }

        defaults.update( kwargs )

        if len( args ) == 1:

            if type( args[ 0 ] ) is list:

                # popen([cmd, arg1, arg2...])

                cmd = args[ 0 ]

            elif type( args[ 0 ] ) is str:

                # popen("cmd arg1 arg2...")

                cmd = args[ 0 ].split()

            else:

                raise Exception( 'popen() requires a string or list' )

        elif len( args ) > 0:

            # popen( cmd, arg1, arg2... )

            cmd = list( args )

        # Attach to our namespace  using mnexec -a

        mncmd = defaults[ 'mncmd' ]

        del defaults[ 'mncmd' ]

        cmd = mncmd + cmd

        # Shell requires a string, not a list!

        if defaults.get( 'shell', False ):

            cmd = ' '.join( cmd )

        return Popen( cmd, **defaults )

    def pexec( self, *args, **kwargs ):

        """Execute a command using popen

           returns: out, err, exitcode"""

        popen = self.popen( *args, **kwargs)

        out, err = popen.communicate()

        exitcode = popen.wait()

        return out, err, exitcode

    # Interface management, configuration, and routing

    # BL notes: This might be a bit redundant or over-complicated.

    # However, it does allow a bit of specialization, including

    # changing the canonical interface names. It's also tricky since

    # the real interfaces are created as veth pairs, so we can't

    # make a single interface at a time.

    def newPort( self ):

        "Return the next port number to allocate."

        if len( self.ports ) > 0:

            return max( self.ports.values() ) + 1

        return self.portBase

    def addIntf( self, intf, port=None ):

        """Add an interface.

           intf: interface

           port: port number (optional, typically OpenFlow port number)"""

        if port is None:

            port = self.newPort()

        self.intfs[ port ] = intf

        self.ports[ intf ] = port

        self.nameToIntf[ intf.name ] = intf

        debug( '\n' )

        debug( 'added intf %s:%d to node %s\n' % ( intf, port, self.name ) )

        if self.inNamespace:

            debug( 'moving', intf, 'into namespace for', self.name, '\n' )

            moveIntf( intf.name, self )

    def defaultIntf( self ):

        "Return interface for lowest port"

        ports = self.intfs.keys()

        if ports:

            return self.intfs[ min( ports ) ]

        else:

            warn( '*** defaultIntf: warning:', self.name,

                  'has no interfaces\n' )

    def intf( self, intf='' ):

        """Return our interface object with given string name,

           default intf if name is falsy (None, empty string, etc).

           or the input intf arg.

        Having this fcn return its arg for Intf objects makes it

        easier to construct functions with flexible input args for

        interfaces (those that accept both string names and Intf objects).

        """

        if not intf:

            return self.defaultIntf()

        elif type( intf ) is str:

            return self.nameToIntf[ intf ]

        else:

            return intf

    def connectionsTo( self, node):

        "Return [ intf1, intf2... ] for all intfs that connect self to node."

        # We could optimize this if it is important

        connections = []

        for intf in self.intfList():

            link = intf.link

            if link:

                node1, node2 = link.intf1.node, link.intf2.node

                if node1 == self and node2 == node:

                    connections += [ ( intf, link.intf2 ) ]

                elif node1 == node and node2 == self:

                    connections += [ ( intf, link.intf1 ) ]

        return connections

    def deleteIntfs( self, checkName=True ):

        """Delete all of our interfaces.

           checkName: only delete interfaces that contain our name"""

        # In theory the interfaces should go away after we shut down.

        # However, this takes time, so we're better off removing them

        # explicitly so that we won't get errors if we run before they

        # have been removed by the kernel. Unfortunately this is very slow,

        # at least with Linux kernels before 2.6.33

        for intf in self.intfs.values():

            # Protect against deleting hardware interfaces

            if ( self.name in intf.name ) or ( not checkName ):

                intf.delete()

                info( '.' )

    # Routing support

    def setARP( self, ip, mac ):

        """Add an ARP entry.

           ip: IP address as string

           mac: MAC address as string"""

        result = self.cmd( 'arp', '-s', ip, mac )

        return result

    def setHostRoute( self, ip, intf ):

        """Add route to host.

           ip: IP address as dotted decimal

           intf: string, interface name"""

        return self.cmd( 'route add -host', ip, 'dev', intf )

    def setDefaultRoute( self, intf=None ):

        """Set the default route to go through intf.

           intf: Intf or {dev <intfname> via <gw-ip> ...}"""

        # Note setParam won't call us if intf is none

        if type( intf ) is str and ' ' in intf:

            params = intf

        else:

            params = 'dev %s' % intf

        self.cmd( 'ip route del default' )

        return self.cmd( 'ip route add default', params )

    # Convenience and configuration methods

    def setMAC( self, mac, intf=None ):

        """Set the MAC address for an interface.

           intf: intf or intf name

           mac: MAC address as string"""

        return self.intf( intf ).setMAC( mac )

    def setIP( self, ip, prefixLen=8, intf=None ):

        """Set the IP address for an interface.

           intf: intf or intf name

           ip: IP address as a string

           prefixLen: prefix length, e.g. 8 for /8 or 16M addrs"""

        # This should probably be rethought

        if '/' not in ip:

            ip = '%s/%s' % ( ip, prefixLen )

        return self.intf( intf ).setIP( ip )

    def IP( self, intf=None ):

        "Return IP address of a node or specific interface."

        return self.intf( intf ).IP()

    def MAC( self, intf=None ):

        "Return MAC address of a node or specific interface."

        return self.intf( intf ).MAC()

    def intfIsUp( self, intf=None ):

        "Check if an interface is up."

        return self.intf( intf ).isUp()

    # The reason why we configure things in this way is so

    # That the parameters can be listed and documented in

    # the config method.

    # Dealing with subclasses and superclasses is slightly

    # annoying, but at least the information is there!

    def setParam( self, results, method, **param ):

        """Internal method: configure a *single* parameter

           results: dict of results to update

           method: config method name

           param: arg=value (ignore if value=None)

           value may also be list or dict"""

        name, value = param.items()[ 0 ]

        f = getattr( self, method, None )

        if not f or value is None:

            return

        if type( value ) is list:

            result = f( *value )

        elif type( value ) is dict:

            result = f( **value )

        else:

            result = f( value )

        results[ name ] = result

        return result

    def config( self, mac=None, ip=None,

                defaultRoute=None, lo='up', **_params ):

        """Configure Node according to (optional) parameters:

           mac: MAC address for default interface

           ip: IP address for default interface

           ifconfig: arbitrary interface configuration

           Subclasses should override this method and call

           the parent class's config(**params)"""

        # If we were overriding this method, we would call

        # the superclass config method here as follows:

        # r = Parent.config( **_params )

        r = {}

        self.setParam( r, 'setMAC', mac=mac )

        self.setParam( r, 'setIP', ip=ip )

        self.setParam( r, 'setDefaultRoute', defaultRoute=defaultRoute )

        # This should be examined

        self.cmd( 'ifconfig lo ' + lo )

        return r

    def configDefault( self, **moreParams ):

        "Configure with default parameters"

        self.params.update( moreParams )

        self.config( **self.params )

    # This is here for backward compatibility

    def linkTo( self, node, link=Link ):

        """(Deprecated) Link to another node

           replace with Link( node1, node2)"""

        return link( self, node )

    # Other methods

    def intfList( self ):

        "List of our interfaces sorted by port number"

        return [ self.intfs[ p ] for p in sorted( self.intfs.iterkeys() ) ]

    def intfNames( self ):

        "The names of our interfaces sorted by port number"

        return [ str( i ) for i in self.intfList() ]

    def __repr__( self ):

        "More informative string representation"

        intfs = ( ','.join( [ '%s:%s' % ( i.name, i.IP() )

                              for i in self.intfList() ] ) )

        return '<%s %s: %s pid=%s> ' % (

            self.__class__.__name__, self.name, intfs, self.pid )

    def __str__( self ):

        "Abbreviated string representation"

        return self.name

    # Automatic class setup support

    isSetup = False

    @classmethod

    def checkSetup( cls ):

        "Make sure our class and superclasses are set up"

        while cls and not getattr( cls, 'isSetup', True ):

            cls.setup()

            cls.isSetup = True

            # Make pylint happy

            cls = getattr( type( cls ), '__base__', None )

    @classmethod

    def setup( cls ):

        "Make sure our class dependencies are available"

        pathCheck( 'mnexec', 'ifconfig', moduleName='Mininet')

class Host( Node ):

    "A host is simply a Node"

    pass

class CPULimitedHost( Host ):

    "CPU limited host"

    def __init__( self, name, sched='cfs', **kwargs ):

        Host.__init__( self, name, **kwargs )

        # Initialize class if necessary

        if not CPULimitedHost.inited:

            CPULimitedHost.init()

        # Create a cgroup and move shell into it

        self.cgroup = 'cpu,cpuacct,cpuset:/' + self.name

        errFail( 'cgcreate -g ' + self.cgroup )

        # We don't add ourselves to a cpuset because you must

        # specify the cpu and memory placement first

        errFail( 'cgclassify -g cpu,cpuacct:/%s %s' % ( self.name, self.pid ) )

        # BL: Setting the correct period/quota is tricky, particularly

        # for RT. RT allows very small quotas, but the overhead

        # seems to be high. CFS has a mininimum quota of 1 ms, but

        # still does better with larger period values.

        self.period_us = kwargs.get( 'period_us', 100000 )

        self.sched = sched

        self.rtprio = 20

    def cgroupSet( self, param, value, resource='cpu' ):

        "Set a cgroup parameter and return its value"

        cmd = 'cgset -r %s.%s=%s /%s' % (

            resource, param, value, self.name )

        quietRun( cmd )

        nvalue = int( self.cgroupGet( param, resource ) )

        if nvalue != value:

            error( '*** error: cgroupSet: %s set to %s instead of %s\n'

                   % ( param, nvalue, value ) )

        return nvalue

    def cgroupGet( self, param, resource='cpu' ):

        "Return value of cgroup parameter"

        cmd = 'cgget -r %s.%s /%s' % (

            resource, param, self.name )

        return int( quietRun( cmd ).split()[ -1 ] )

    def cgroupDel( self ):

        "Clean up our cgroup"

        # info( '*** deleting cgroup', self.cgroup, '\n' )

        _out, _err, exitcode = errRun( 'cgdelete -r ' + self.cgroup )

        return exitcode != 0

    def popen( self, *args, **kwargs ):

        """Return a Popen() object in node's namespace

           args: Popen() args, single list, or string

           kwargs: Popen() keyword args"""

        # Tell mnexec to execute command in our cgroup

        mncmd = [ 'mnexec', '-da', str( self.pid ),

                  '-g', self.name ]

        if self.sched == 'rt':

            mncmd += [ '-r', str( self.rtprio ) ]

        return Host.popen( self, *args, mncmd=mncmd, **kwargs )

    def cleanup( self ):

        "Clean up Node, then clean up our cgroup"

        super( CPULimitedHost, self ).cleanup()

        retry( retries=3, delaySecs=1, fn=self.cgroupDel )

    def chrt( self ):

        "Set RT scheduling priority"

        quietRun( 'chrt -p %s %s' % ( self.rtprio, self.pid ) )

        result = quietRun( 'chrt -p %s' % self.pid )

        firstline = result.split( '\n' )[ 0 ]

        lastword = firstline.split( ' ' )[ -1 ]

        if lastword != 'SCHED_RR':

            error( '*** error: could not assign SCHED_RR to %s\n' % self.name )

        return lastword

    def rtInfo( self, f ):

        "Internal method: return parameters for RT bandwidth"

        pstr, qstr = 'rt_period_us', 'rt_runtime_us'

        # RT uses wall clock time for period and quota

        quota = int( self.period_us * f * numCores() )

        return pstr, qstr, self.period_us, quota

    def cfsInfo( self, f):

        "Internal method: return parameters for CFS bandwidth"

        pstr, qstr = 'cfs_period_us', 'cfs_quota_us'

        # CFS uses wall clock time for period and CPU time for quota.

        quota = int( self.period_us * f * numCores() )

        period = self.period_us

        if f > 0 and quota < 1000:

            debug( '(cfsInfo: increasing default period) ' )

            quota = 1000

            period = int( quota / f / numCores() )

        return pstr, qstr, period, quota

    # BL comment:

    # This may not be the right API,

    # since it doesn't specify CPU bandwidth in "absolute"

    # units the way link bandwidth is specified.

    # We should use MIPS or SPECINT or something instead.

    # Alternatively, we should change from system fraction

    # to CPU seconds per second, essentially assuming that

    # all CPUs are the same.

    def setCPUFrac( self, f=-1, sched=None):

        """Set overall CPU fraction for this host

           f: CPU bandwidth limit (fraction)

           sched: 'rt' or 'cfs'

           Note 'cfs' requires CONFIG_CFS_BANDWIDTH"""

        if not f:

            return

        if not sched:

            sched = self.sched

        if sched == 'rt':

            pstr, qstr, period, quota = self.rtInfo( f )

        elif sched == 'cfs':

            pstr, qstr, period, quota = self.cfsInfo( f )

        else:

            return

        if quota < 0:

            # Reset to unlimited

            quota = -1

        # Set cgroup's period and quota

        self.cgroupSet( pstr, period )

        self.cgroupSet( qstr, quota )

        if sched == 'rt':

            # Set RT priority if necessary

            self.chrt()

        info( '(%s %d/%dus) ' % ( sched, quota, period ) )

    def setCPUs( self, cores, mems=0 ):

        "Specify (real) cores that our cgroup can run on"

        if type( cores ) is list:

            cores = ','.join( [ str( c ) for c in cores ] )

        self.cgroupSet( resource='cpuset', param='cpus',

                        value=cores )

        # Memory placement is probably not relevant, but we

        # must specify it anyway

        self.cgroupSet( resource='cpuset', param='mems',

                        value=mems)

        # We have to do this here after we've specified

        # cpus and mems

        errFail( 'cgclassify -g cpuset:/%s %s' % (

                 self.name, self.pid ) )

    def config( self, cpu=None, cores=None, **params ):

        """cpu: desired overall system CPU fraction

           cores: (real) core(s) this host can run on

           params: parameters for Node.config()"""

        r = Node.config( self, **params )

        # Was considering cpu={'cpu': cpu , 'sched': sched}, but

        # that seems redundant

        self.setParam( r, 'setCPUFrac', cpu=cpu )

        self.setParam( r, 'setCPUs', cores=cores )

        return r

    inited = False

    @classmethod

    def init( cls ):

        "Initialization for CPULimitedHost class"

        mountCgroups()

        cls.inited = True

class HostWithPrivateDirs( Host ):

    "Host with private directories"

    def __init__( self, name, *args, **kwargs ):

        "privateDirs: list of private directory strings or tuples"

        self.name = name

        self.privateDirs = kwargs.pop( 'privateDirs', [] )

        Host.__init__( self, name, *args, **kwargs )

        self.mountPrivateDirs()

    def mountPrivateDirs( self ):

        "mount private directories"

        for directory in self.privateDirs:

            if isinstance( directory, tuple ):

                # mount given private directory

                privateDir = directory[ 1 ] % self.__dict__ 

                mountPoint = directory[ 0 ]

                self.cmd( 'mkdir -p %s' % privateDir )

                self.cmd( 'mkdir -p %s' % mountPoint )

                self.cmd( 'mount --bind %s %s' %

                               ( privateDir, mountPoint ) )

            else:

                # mount temporary filesystem on directory

                self.cmd( 'mkdir -p %s' % directory ) 

                self.cmd( 'mount -n -t tmpfs tmpfs %s' % directory )

# Some important things to note:

#

# The "IP" address which setIP() assigns to the switch is not

# an "IP address for the switch" in the sense of IP routing.

# Rather, it is the IP address for the control interface,

# on the control network, and it is only relevant to the

# controller. If you are running in the root namespace

# (which is the only way to run OVS at the moment), the

# control interface is the loopback interface, and you

# normally never want to change its IP address!

#

# In general, you NEVER want to attempt to use Linux's

# network stack (i.e. ifconfig) to "assign" an IP address or

# MAC address to a switch data port. Instead, you "assign"

# the IP and MAC addresses in the controller by specifying

# packets that you want to receive or send. The "MAC" address

# reported by ifconfig for a switch data port is essentially

# meaningless. It is important to understand this if you

# want to create a functional router using OpenFlow.

class Switch( Node ):

    """A Switch is a Node that is running (or has execed?)

       an OpenFlow switch."""

    portBase = 1  # Switches start with port 1 in OpenFlow

    dpidLen = 16  # digits in dpid passed to switch

    def __init__( self, name, dpid=None, opts='', listenPort=None, **params):

        """dpid: dpid hex string (or None to derive from name, e.g. s1 -> 1)

           opts: additional switch options

           listenPort: port to listen on for dpctl connections"""

        Node.__init__( self, name, **params )

        self.dpid = self.defaultDpid( dpid )

        self.opts = opts

        self.listenPort = listenPort

        if not self.inNamespace:

            self.controlIntf = Intf( 'lo', self, port=0 )

    def defaultDpid( self, dpid=None ):

        "Return correctly formatted dpid from dpid or switch name (s1 -> 1)"

        if dpid:

            # Remove any colons and make sure it's a good hex number

            dpid = dpid.translate( None, ':' )

            assert len( dpid ) <= self.dpidLen and int( dpid, 16 ) >= 0

        else:

            # Use hex of the first number in the switch name

            nums = re.findall( r'\d+', self.name )

            if nums:

                dpid = hex( int( nums[ 0 ] ) )[ 2: ]

            else:

                raise Exception( 'Unable to derive default datapath ID - '

                                 'please either specify a dpid or use a '

                                 'canonical switch name such as s23.' )

        return '0' * ( self.dpidLen - len( dpid ) ) + dpid

    def defaultIntf( self ):

        "Return control interface"

        if self.controlIntf:

            return self.controlIntf

        else:

            return Node.defaultIntf( self )

    def sendCmd( self, *cmd, **kwargs ):

        """Send command to Node.

           cmd: string"""

        kwargs.setdefault( 'printPid', False )

        if not self.execed:

            return Node.sendCmd( self, *cmd, **kwargs )

        else:

            error( '*** Error: %s has execed and cannot accept commands' %

                   self.name )

    def connected( self ):

        "Is the switch connected to a controller? (override this method)"

        return False and self  # satisfy pylint

    def __repr__( self ):

        "More informative string representation"

        intfs = ( ','.join( [ '%s:%s' % ( i.name, i.IP() )

                              for i in self.intfList() ] ) )

        return '<%s %s: %s pid=%s> ' % (

            self.__class__.__name__, self.name, intfs, self.pid )

class UserSwitch( Switch ):

    "User-space switch."

    dpidLen = 12

    def __init__( self, name, dpopts='--no-slicing', **kwargs ):

        """Init.

           name: name for the switch

           dpopts: additional arguments to ofdatapath (--no-slicing)"""

        Switch.__init__( self, name, **kwargs )

        pathCheck( 'ofdatapath', 'ofprotocol',

                   moduleName='the OpenFlow reference user switch' +

                              '(openflow.org)' )

        if self.listenPort:

            self.opts += ' --listen=ptcp:%i ' % self.listenPort

        else:

            self.opts += ' --listen=punix:/tmp/%s.listen' % self.name

        self.dpopts = dpopts

    @classmethod

    def setup( cls ):

        "Ensure any dependencies are loaded; if not, try to load them."

        if not os.path.exists( '/dev/net/tun' ):

            moduleDeps( add=TUN )

    def dpctl( self, *args ):

        "Run dpctl command"

        listenAddr = None

        if not self.listenPort:

            listenAddr = 'unix:/tmp/%s.listen' % self.name

        else:

            listenAddr = 'tcp:127.0.0.1:%i' % self.listenPort

        return self.cmd( 'dpctl ' + ' '.join( args ) +

                         ' ' + listenAddr )

    def connected( self ):

        "Is the switch connected to a controller?"

        return 'remote.is-connected=true' in self.dpctl( 'status' )

    @staticmethod

    def TCReapply( intf ):

        """Unfortunately user switch and Mininet are fighting

           over tc queuing disciplines. To resolve the conflict,

           we re-create the user switch's configuration, but as a

           leaf of the TCIntf-created configuration."""

        if type( intf ) is TCIntf:

            ifspeed = 10000000000 # 10 Gbps

            minspeed = ifspeed * 0.001

            res = intf.config( **intf.params )

            if res is None: # link may not have TC parameters

                return

            # Re-add qdisc, root, and default classes user switch created, but

            # with new parent, as setup by Mininet's TCIntf

            parent = res['parent']

            intf.tc( "%s qdisc add dev %s " + parent +

                     " handle 1: htb default 0xfffe" )

            intf.tc( "%s class add dev %s classid 1:0xffff parent 1: htb rate "

                     + str(ifspeed) )

            intf.tc( "%s class add dev %s classid 1:0xfffe parent 1:0xffff " +

                     "htb rate " + str(minspeed) + " ceil " + str(ifspeed) )

    def start( self, controllers ):

        """Start OpenFlow reference user datapath.

           Log to /tmp/sN-{ofd,ofp}.log.

           controllers: list of controller objects"""

        # Add controllers

        clist = ','.join( [ 'tcp:%s:%d' % ( c.IP(), c.port )

                            for c in controllers ] )

        ofdlog = '/tmp/' + self.name + '-ofd.log'

        ofplog = '/tmp/' + self.name + '-ofp.log'

        self.cmd( 'ifconfig lo up' )

        intfs = [ str( i ) for i in self.intfList() if not i.IP() ]

        self.cmd( 'ofdatapath -i ' + ','.join( intfs ) +

                  ' punix:/tmp/' + self.name + ' -d %s ' % self.dpid +

                  self.dpopts +

                  ' 1> ' + ofdlog + ' 2> ' + ofdlog + ' &' )

        self.cmd( 'ofprotocol unix:/tmp/' + self.name +

                  ' ' + clist +

                  ' --fail=closed ' + self.opts +

                  ' 1> ' + ofplog + ' 2>' + ofplog + ' &' )

        if "no-slicing" not in self.dpopts:

            # Only TCReapply if slicing is enable

            sleep(1) # Allow ofdatapath to start before re-arranging qdisc's

            for intf in self.intfList():

                if not intf.IP():

                    self.TCReapply( intf )

    def stop( self ):

        "Stop OpenFlow reference user datapath."

        self.cmd( 'kill %ofdatapath' )

        self.cmd( 'kill %ofprotocol' )

        self.deleteIntfs()

class OVSLegacyKernelSwitch( Switch ):

    """Open VSwitch legacy kernel-space switch using ovs-openflowd.

       Currently only works in the root namespace."""

    def __init__( self, name, dp=None, **kwargs ):

        """Init.

           name: name for switch

           dp: netlink id (0, 1, 2, ...)

           defaultMAC: default MAC as unsigned int; random value if None"""

        Switch.__init__( self, name, **kwargs )

        self.dp = dp if dp else self.name

        self.intf = self.dp

        if self.inNamespace:

            error( "OVSKernelSwitch currently only works"

                   " in the root namespace.\n" )

            exit( 1 )

    @classmethod

    def setup( cls ):

        "Ensure any dependencies are loaded; if not, try to load them."

        pathCheck( 'ovs-dpctl', 'ovs-openflowd',

                   moduleName='Open vSwitch (openvswitch.org)')

        moduleDeps( subtract=OF_KMOD, add=OVS_KMOD )

    def start( self, controllers ):

        "Start up kernel datapath."

        ofplog = '/tmp/' + self.name + '-ofp.log'

        quietRun( 'ifconfig lo up' )

        # Delete local datapath if it exists;

        # then create a new one monitoring the given interfaces

        self.cmd( 'ovs-dpctl del-dp ' + self.dp )

        self.cmd( 'ovs-dpctl add-dp ' + self.dp )

        intfs = [ str( i ) for i in self.intfList() if not i.IP() ]

        self.cmd( 'ovs-dpctl', 'add-if', self.dp, ' '.join( intfs ) )

        # Run protocol daemon

        clist = ','.join( [ 'tcp:%s:%d' % ( c.IP(), c.port )

                            for c in controllers ] )

        self.cmd( 'ovs-openflowd ' + self.dp +

                  ' ' + clist +

                  ' --fail=secure ' + self.opts +

                  ' --datapath-id=' + self.dpid +

                  ' 1>' + ofplog + ' 2>' + ofplog + '&' )

        self.execed = False

    def stop( self ):

        "Terminate kernel datapath."

        quietRun( 'ovs-dpctl del-dp ' + self.dp )

        self.cmd( 'kill %ovs-openflowd' )

        self.deleteIntfs()

class OVSSwitch( Switch ):

    "Open vSwitch switch. Depends on ovs-vsctl."

    def __init__( self, name, failMode='secure', datapath='kernel',

                 inband=False, **params ):

        """Init.

           name: name for switch

           failMode: controller loss behavior (secure|open)

           datapath: userspace or kernel mode (kernel|user)

           inband: use in-band control (False)"""

        Switch.__init__( self, name, **params )

        self.failMode = failMode

        self.datapath = datapath

        self.inband = inband

    @classmethod

    def setup( cls ):

        "Make sure Open vSwitch is installed and working"